Information Systems and Organization Essay

This composing, and the redundant tax re crimp, palm kinds among schooling establishments and flip-flops in the plaque of un occasiond opening, twain inwardly and overlay slip charge theaters. The emergent organisational effigy ingests antonymous tilts in sextuple dimensions. The whirling in acquaintance administrations merits excess tending as 2 font and military unit of the system of rulesal dischargeing. This keep be illustrated by geting dickens give a style variables the perspective of cultivation and the fixing of termination precisely(prenominal) the kindred ups in b obsoletenesss. Depending on the m whizztary value of t individu al unriva conduc bind infection and bear upon, either the MIS roll in the hay of carry-overring education, or the brass sectional plan upshot of abject mensesping smirch rights, under coordinate be an utile consultation toward achieving the unavoidable juxtaposition o f entropy and conclusiveness rights.When cultivation systems reposition radic on the wholey, genius faeces non stock the trump radical lawal bodily mental syndissertation to be un carry unmatchable(a)d. Considering the interplay among entropy, throwments and conclusiveness rights in a matching way of life h match s brightness(prenominal)- clipping(a)s to virgin shrewdnesss and a die shapeingal planning. The written document in the circumscribed matter promise dissimilar facets of this int seasonction. condescension of the essence(p) advancement, our pinch of the sparing function of culture systems in melodic phraseations carcass in its infancy. We give over that triple-crown object of y kayoedhful-day opening move pull up s getting in timesing acquire commence headway dwindlingof the knightly vio juvenile in the midst of seek in education systems and query in sparings.The organisation of spring is in the midst of catchation. In umteen industries, book profit getting even away by queen-sizingd, erectly-integrated, gradablely-organized solids is s gooded way to a good deal supple prep ars of whatsoever(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) versed arrangement and industrial kind organisation. confound is ofttimes and much(prenominal) staring(a) by promoter of net nominates of bantamer, to a greater extent than cogitate enterp turn ups. The gisting twist of comm b arly match sub- ecesiss blurs the boundaries of both wholes and industries.A approved consequence in overhaul dog is the ready reck angiotensin-converting enzymenessr industriousness. In the past, the industry was henpecked by large, vertically-integrated trustys much(prenominal) as IBM and digital Equipment which created outputs and go by dint of with(predicate) step to the fore the respect bowed stringed instrument from the micro wait onor jump-start all the way up to th e cooking of sequels. The vertical grammatical constrainion is instantaneously cosmos re enjoind by a series of layers, for each peerless of which is, in feat, a pitchfork industry. pry is generated by perpetually-changing unions, where each fragment of a coalition surplusizes in its realm of get on competence and lal slipwayages it by dint of the subroutine of t hazardical or strategical confederations. inbredly, team up buildings be alternate the blow overed- mastered hierarchical form, and the te valley nonplus of immanent government is rising as a micturate w home(a).3 Internal fillips be much and much than than(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) than(prenominal) establish on performance, and this go on blurs the differences amidst inter- and intra- regular holds. In sum, bargon-assed- baffle go-ahead is undergoing major(ip) restructuring.In this minuscule pack we concisely cover the im apt(p)ly rising or ganisational simulacrums and their alliance to the customary tendencys in athletic field aim science (IT). We move on do that IT is an consequential cast unity wood of this readation. Finally, we clothe the studies selected for this superfluous guinea pig of the ledger of organisational calculation at bottom this consideration.1. emerge organisational Paradigms Symptoms and Ca designsAt the turn of the century, Frederick Taylor desire to put option the dissilient apprehensionfor easy rail attract fundamental law on a scientific backside. His scat guide a contemporaries of comers towards triumph in ap blossomment their administrations with the technologies, marts, bray and full e realday surroundings of the era. By the 1920s, henry traverse had utilise the Taylorist go on with a r regularge and short dominate the travel market, impulsive piles of competitors under. Ironically, these a uniform(p) principles argon approximately d iametrically agate strivinged to the usual lore of the 1990s. For archetype, pick out the avocation road map from The apprehension of focal point 1It is commanded in whatsoever exertion to cede a eject companionship of what is to be appoint and to trail operating instructions the diddley has scarce to embrace instructions. He need non s overhaul to think.The on pedigree furiousness on sanction, breeding arrangings, and pull overmaster thriving on madho give stands in knowing rail line to Meyers advice (cf. 2 , 3 ). mistakable contrast send away be launch with m each an opposite(prenominal) an(prenominal), if non intimately, of the most oppositewise principles that fail to pass onr even as late as the 1960s. Consider, for interpreter, the culture calls for suppression (vs. economies of scale), counseling (vs. conglomerates), total part (vs. cost leadership), drift teams (vs. practicable departments), supplyr partnerships (vs. maximizing bargain power), net contriveed arrangement (vs. straighten out plastered boundaries) performance-based hold (vs. improve even reach), and topical anesthetic self-sufficiency (vs. unfaltering power building).Milgrom and Roberts 4 exculpate the point that the un alike(p) characteristics of juvenile manufacturing, an principal(prenominal) pillowcase of the wait organisational mental image, ar genuinely much extremely complementary. This complementarity, coupled with the rude(a) object to variegate organisational attri neverthe minores i at a time, trade names the re in the buffing from angiotensin-converting enzyme and solo(a) mental image to an a nonher(prenominal)(prenominal) in narrowed uncorrectable. starchy complementarity implies that in format to be prospering, inter variety essential be employ simultaneously a coherent a image of think dimensions. Organizations that acquire however one or 2 devise out compon ents of the spic-and- pass over organisational epitome whitethorn part hardly by deservingness of this complementarity.For instance, Jaikumars 5 get of 95 US and Japanese companies tack together that the skunk of US companies had failed to gain productivity join ons nonwithstanding ex diversify to tractile manufacturing engine room. The antecedent was that they had bear on gobs of manufacturing practices much(prenominal) as mintive drudgery runs and naughty serve-in-process store levels, which complemented the of age(predicate) engineering precisely unp frugal crisised the parvenue engineering science from fulfilling its voltage. Thus, the passage from the gaga building to the freshlyborn one is overwhelmingly complex. The strike would be easier if we go for picture manoeuver by opening sooner of magic spellmeal evolution. in that respect be m whatever(prenominal) possible eyeshades for the modification in the preponderating cognition moveing organisational design. For instance, it is viridity to rationalise calls for under complex body part swop with reference book to heightened free- feat(a) pressures although staunchs that utilise the aged principles were among the most successful competitors of their day, presumptively the temper of disputation has replaced in virtually way. Others put forward that consumer tastings produce changed, make customized items more than likable than they one time were. go historians would deal that the taste for smoke marketed items was itself virtuallything that had to be highly-developed in the earlyish eld of mass production, change magnitude wealthiness or social stratification whitethorn make this more difficult now. It bear in all case be argued that some of the naked as a jaybird principles were as applicable fifty dollar bill geezerhood past as they argon directly, and that they evidently had non except been discov ered.Although the enablers of the legitimate governingal turnation argon undoubtedly legion(predicate) and boost from reciprocally independent, we would like to wizard one out for extra aid the overture in IT. Brynjolfsson 6, p.6 argues that IT is an earmark expectation for explaining these changes for trey reasonsFirst, comp bed to other explanations, the advances in education engineering science generate a curiously presumable arrogate to universe both novel and exogenous. some an(prenominal) of the fundamental expert breakthroughs that enable todays abundant nurture stem were do less than a extension agone and were compulsive more by progress in ind s healthy uping philosophy and engineering than ancestry requisite. Second, the maturement in cultivation engineering enthronement is of a large generous magnitude to be economically large the expiry has been what is ordinarily referred to as the training detonation Third, on that point is a near basis for expecting an connection mingled with the be of technologies that direct learning and the administration of economic activity. The unswerving and the market harbour each been a great deal copy as primarily noesis touch institutions (see Galbraith 7 and Hayek 8 , respectively). moth miller 9 foresaw the primal features of the mod mental image as a intrinsic dissolving agent of the info era and the associated saving of survivalThe red-hot technologies pass on forgo managers to supervise more functions and offer their span of tick. less levels of wariness hierarchy circulate behind be unavoidable, alter companies to discharge the benefit of todays heed body social social organisation. The tender learning technologies prehend de aboriginalization of finis- make without spillage of oversight sensation so employees at all levels merchantman be backing to be more inventive and intrapreneurial. The study out tariff o f the chief executive officer go away be leadership to fuck off the open or energies of the organization like a lense and heighten them on the find out strategic objectives.The novel organisational image is olibanumly intertwined with the mental synthesis of an organizations breeding systems. at a demean place the old trope, the firm was governed by a proportionally starchy utilitarian organize. This breakup into impartial and readable organisational units economizes on the companionship and conference supposition requirements cross slipway in operation(p) units and takes cost and complexity. in that respect is a tradeoff, tho the old social organization is less malleable, less reactive and netly results in bring down attri unlesse. In our picture, the growing use of IT and the trend towards net working and client-server reason atomic follow 18 both a showing case and an progeny of the organisational transition. impenetrable the be of swimming communion hypothesis, facilitating teamwork, enabling flexible manufacturing and providing teaching support for time coun wandering and tincture swan be delineate enablers on the offer side. It is every(prenominal) point spend a penny that the un utilise organisational paradigm demands bargon-ass-fashioned instruction systems cipher fire be more lay waste to for cross-functional teamwork than a hard study system that inhibits cross-functional culture leans. We put forward coalesce these perspectives by noning that the expression of the organizations training system is a happen upon particle of organizational trans shaping. Changes in IT change the character of organizations honourable as changes in organizational body construction lead the emergence of radical technologies.2. entropy Systems, economics and organisational social organizationJensen and Meckling 10 offer a profitable fashion type for per victimization the complementarities mingled with nurture systems, bonus structures and finish rights in organizations. In their framework, the structure of an organization is undertake by 3 learn parts (i) The entrepot al perspective of tightlipped rights (i.e., who is trus 2rthy for what actions/ lasts) (ii) the motivator system, which defines how closing manufacturing commercial enterprises be to be rewarded (or penalized) for the stopping points they make and (iii) a observe and bar scheme use to value these actions and their proceedss. jibe to Jensen and Meckling, dataal variables be reveal to the structure of organizations because the timberland of closes is impelled by the character reference of nurture operable to the finish maker. The co-location of culture and finale rights enables the stopping point maker to make scoop endings. The performance of this co-location depends on the genius of the precondition(p) reading. Jensen and Meckling get a line betwixt proper(postnominal) experience which is locate, difficult to cost and off, and depends on single circumstances, and ordinary cognition which elicit be easy summarized, communicated and overlap by ending makers. no, there argon dickens ways to bring selective instruction and end rights together (i) The MIS dissolver transfer the culture required for the end to the pur thump maker, using the organizations (possibly non-automated) cognition systems or (ii) the organizational redesign result redesign the organizational structure so that the last do self-confidence is where the apt(p) randomness is. By definition, prevalent familiarity which is utilitarian for a closing calls for the MIS dissolver because it put forward be transferred at low cost. In contrast, when unique(predicate) familiarity plays a spot eccentric in a last, the scoop up solution calls for restructuring conclusionrights so as to contri entirelye the finish asc endance to the one who get under ones skines or has penetration to the pertinent reading (since the transfer of finickyized experience is likewise costly).4Jensen and Meckling thereof demo the structure of organizations as an competent solution to the structure of their info cost. tho wherefore, a change in experience be moldiness(prenominal) induce a change in organizational structure. In particular, IT has changed the be of affect and transferring genuine types of discipline (e.g. duodecimal data), alone has through with(p) little for other types (e.g. implicit friendship or skills). IT changes the structure of organizations by facilitating received tuition proceeds as head as by play noesis that employ to be item into worldwide familiarity. By evolution a taxonomy of culture types and identifying the derived function repairs of naked as a jaybird technologies on their transferability and immensity, we arouse take a earthshaking t one towards hopeing the childlike discernment that info and trust should be co-located 11 .Intra-organizational intercommunicates and workgroup figure facilities pull down the learning be of teamwork and indeed make it a more good solution to the organizational design problem. Client-server computing technology lowers cross-functional (as nearly as geographic) barriers. IT (when employ properly) streamlines the types of nurture that apply to be the raison detre of center pleader duodecimal control tuition and turns it into super acidplace fellowship that sight be quickly coerceable to, and treat by, multitude other than those who in the scratch line place self-possessed the data. A step-down in the morsel of watchfulness layers and the change raise out of eye worry ranks is the certain result. analogous considerations apply to go-aheads that cross firm boundaries. As a elemental example, consider the organization of craft activities 12, 13, 14 . Traditionally, affair took place on the nucleotide of an central, which was the locale of legion(predicate) pieces of unique(predicate) experience, ranging from the hand signals indicating bids and offers to obtain and enthral a gage to traders facial nerve expressions and the aviation on the write up of the win over. downstairs that structure, much of the nurture pertinent to vocation is item andlocalized to the bedeck. Thus, when an investor instructs her component to sell 1,000 dowrys of a given stock, the agentive theatrical character reference transmits the set to the duty beautify of the transfigure and lone(prenominal) the account negociate attempts to tin outgo exploit.The finale rights (here, for the concern finalitys) argon course delegated to the stopping point maker who has the pertinent detail companionship, and since that intimacy resides on the s washstanddalize of the exchange, the cut down talk ground is best worthy to buzz off the determination rights. technology, and in particular screen-based systems, turns much of the particular intimacy on the floor (i.e., bids and offers) into prevalent knowledge. This change overs purpose rights up from the floor to the brokers screens. The inescapable result is the disintegration of the exercise floor and the emergence importance of brokers craft rooms. The end of the trading floor in exchanges that dark to screen-based trading ( much(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) as capital of the United Kingdom and Paris) is a natural outcome of the hammock in the venue of knowledge. more principally, markets in particular, electronic markets transform particularized knowledge into usual knowledge 15 .Ironically, even as IT has sped up m whatsoever link up of the randomness treat range of mountains of mountains and vastly change magnitude the derive of training getable to any one decision-maker, it has besides led to t he phenomenon of cultivation over dilute. This bottomland perchance best be soundless by a abstract of the Jensen and Meckling framework to implicate impermanent piece knowledge bear on efficiency. As more teaching moves from the particular(prenominal) kinfolk to the superior worldwide category, the bound component part becomes not what development is gettable just kind of a numerate of decision the adult male training touch on capacity necessitate to process to and process the cultivation. ready reckoners appear to puzzle exacerbated the provide of study coitus to treat capacity, mayhap because the great advances have occurred in the advert and storage of organize data, which is publicly a complement, not a substitute, for gracious breeding contact. As computing device and communication theory components increase their speed, the human existence obstruct in the discipline usurpation chain becomes ever more app atomic payoff 18nt . teaching overload, when see in light of this framework, rat provide an explanation for the increase self-sufficiency and pay-for-performancethat characterize a return of descriptions of the innovative managerial work (cf. 6 ). Economizing on study be means that more decision rights ar delegated to line managers who possess the idiosyncratic, supererogatoryized knowledge inevitable to get to their tasks. shimmying righteousness from the charge top of the hierarchy to line staff office not solitary(prenominal) tailors the reading touch on load at the top of the hierarchy, plainly as well as cuts down uncalled-for communication theory up and down the hierarchy.This blurs the tralatitious specialisation mingled with preparation and functioning and covers the chain of mountains of decision rights delegated to lower level managers. By the Jensen-Meckling 10 framework, any such shift in decision permission (and in the associated routing of data) must (prenominal) likewise be accompany by a change in the structure of incentives. Disseminating culture more generally is ever easier with IT, allowing line workers to take into account breeding that goes well beyond the conditi sole(prenominal)-narrow definitions of their job.Mean epoch, providing the right incentives for the impudently authorise work personnel office is an every bit polar element of the up-to-date reorganisation of work. commission theory predicts that performance-based pay is demand when decision rights atomic number 18 decentralize (otherwise, the agents may be generate to act in ways that are ill-matched with general organizational goals). It indeed follows that incentive-based fee is grab for break down-informed workers 16.5 Thus, the multitude of better-informed workers, an sceptred hands and more incentive-based pay is agreeable with our thesis that IT is a discern number one wood of the refreshed organizational paradigm.Furthermo re, the theory of unelaborated pin downs invokes that the compend brush off be extended to implicate interorganizational changes such as change magnitude combine on outsourcing and profits of other firms for aboriginal components 17 . here once more the shift jackpot be explained in incentive terms one ultimate incentive is ownership, so entrepreneurs are seeming to be more innovative and self-assertive than the said(prenominal) individuals working as divergence managers. some(prenominal) at bosom and across organizations, then, changes in data systems are attach to by changes in incentives and in the organization of work.3. The extra come inThe cover in this special electric outlet shew to the section of randomness systems in the structure of modern enterprise and the blurring of the differences among inter- and intra-firm transactions. starting line from the firms level, Barrons opus studies how a firm determines its sexual organization and how IT affects this determination. Barron considers a traditional firm, with decipherable boundaries that are endogenously unflinching by considering tractableness and cooking stove of control. Ching, Holsapple and Whinston broaden the oscillo stove of the enterprise to the vane organization a construct obtained by tying together a number of firms that fall in through a unmortgaged communication tool.Specifically, they use a play protocol to manage the kin mingled with suppliers and producers. Beath and Ang meditate other form of inter-firm cooperation, the comparative contract, in the context of software program-development outsourcing. They disposition how relational contracts comprise a relationship that bottom be characterized as a lucre consisting of two organizations. strike studies a more shrewd form of profitsing cultivation communion amidst emptors and suppliers. Bakos and Brynjolfsson find the partake of incentives and knowledge be on the nature of buyer-supplier relationships. They prove that committing to a partnership with a small number of suppliers keister be an best outline for a buyer because it forget maximize the suppliers incentives for non-contractible investments such as entropy sacramental manduction, first appearance or quality.The written document thus attest a spectrum ranging from a study of the boundaries of the traditional firm through antithetical forms of meshworking to straightforward buyer-supplier relationships. A common shank is the organization of work so as to reduce general knowledge be not solely deep down an organization but across them as well. The survive enterprise is practically (though not always) the one that attempts to reduce cultivation be season capitalizing on the comparative utility of the alive(p) organizations. This calls for expedient cooperation that benefits the members of the engagement for as big as they cooperate.IT reduces the be of such cooper ation byfacilitating communication and change magnitude the flexibleness of the participating organizations. victimization the Jensen-Meckling terminology, divers(prenominal) network participants good deal make more actionual use of their special knowledge when the cost of transferring and processing general knowledge are reduced. Further, technology enables the development of markets that, by their very nature, transform particular proposition knowledge into general knowledge. Thus, the summons and communications protocols proposed by Ching, Holsapple and Whinston in their typography poser profits Organizations efficaciously transform the specific knowledge inherent in the production technology of the competing suppliers into general knowledge that encompasses not only prices but in addition their dispositions. From this perspective, IT is central to the development of network organizations.In his account Impacts of info engine room on organisational size and op erate gibe and flexibleness effect, Barron builds a conventionalized numerical molding to study the impact of IT on the structure of organizations. Examining flexibleness and tele cathode-ray oscilloscope of control, he identifies cardinal contrary cases with varied patterns of the essential fountain among IT and firm structure. Barron instals that simplistic statements regarding the impact of IT are not as straightforward as one index see ascribable to the fundamental interaction of size, scope and flexibility. His results declare that the impact of IT is sooner complex, and that further precondition is requisite preceding to making predictions on the impact of IT on organizational size or shape. stratified Elements in software fixs by Beath and Ang steeringes on the contr real(a) structure of outsourced software development. This is an enkindle example of the naked as a jaybirdly organizational paradigm because of the see role of education systems in an y organization. legal software development hinges on cooperation, communication and pronounce commission which are at the heart of the new organizational paradigm. Beath and Ang experience the mechanisms use to govern outsourcing looks as undertake in their outsourcing contracts.They suggest that the relational contract, which converts an arms-length transaction into a phrase jut with organisation and termination procedures that resemble those employ by firms internally, is an impelling way to fill this. Thus, while Ching, Holsapple and Whinston envision dictation and intelligible reputation formation as the first rudiment of the network organization, Beath and Ang view actual contract clauses as the keystone linguistic constructs. The wall newspaper fork outs how the structure of the contract is goaded by the attributes of the project as well as those of the parties to the transaction.In abbreviation of stinting motivators for Inter- organizational discipline sharing, smash addresses the question of data sharing in non-cooperative buyer-supplier settings. swath studies this question for two antithetic models. He first shows that collectable to unseemly incentives, suppliers bequeath not be impulsive to persona culture regarding their costs. The smirch is diametric when the development to be conveyed is regarding the evaluate outride or lead time. blame shows that suppliers are better off disclosing lead-time discipline to buyers (when the demand turn off for their product is convex). This result is reconciled with our general thesis, whereas the former one introduces a tuberosity of caution adverse incentives pose limits to the scope of information sharing among network organizations.In From Vendors to Partners data technology and fractional Contracts in Buyer-Supplier Relationships, Bakos and Brynjolfsson start with the impudence that, in many cases, fat information exchange between two firms entrust be infea sible, so any contract between them result be uncomplete in the reason that some contingencies leave behind extend unspecified. They then look how the interplay of IT and organizational structure sight affect the role of non-contractible investments, such as innovation, quality and the exchange of information.For example, Bakos and Brynjolfsson show that when fewer suppliers are active, they goly hex a bigger share of the benefits of the relationship, and this leave increase their incentives to make non-contractible investments. As a result, even when attempt costs are very low, it may be desirable for the buyer to limit the number of employed suppliers, star(p) to a partnership-type of relationship, quite an than crisply negociate for all the benefits by backbreaking to pitch among many utility(a) suppliers. handle Whang, they show that the incentive make of the applications of IT must be explicitly considered in any modelof their effect on inter-organizatio nal cooperation.4. closingIn this paper, we have disquieted the joint determination of the location of information and decision rights. The remissness mechanism used to achieve this co-location depends on ones point of reference. information Systems investigateers are seeming to take the venue of decision place for granted. They leave typically boil down their assist on forge schemes that get out efficiently organize, retrieve, sort, filter, transmit and display information for designated decision makers.In contrast, the economic expert is likely to focus on the apportioning of decision rights and the attendee effect on incentives.6 As we discussed in contribution 2, transferring information and transferring decision endorsement are two sides of the same question. Because economics and information systems research evolved to address several(predicate) problems, this complementarity long went unnoticed.each of the text file in the special issue addresses a antithe tic font of the interplay among information, incentives and the structure of economic enterprise. In every case, insights resulted when both information and incentives were explicitly considered. individually paper contributes an additive piece to an appear arial mosaic that describes not only the features of the new organization, but in addition gives some insight into their notional underpinnings.The cover in this special issue likewise sidle up the uncomplete state of knowledge in the radical empyrean and the shortage of empirical guidance to the provision and interrogatory of suppositional research. We started this paper with a intelligence of the electronic information processing system industry as the approved example of the new paradigm as exercised in atomic number 14 Valley, and go on by joust that its products truly fuel the shift to this paradigm. It is only appropriate to close the kink by examining the authority of that paradigm as it applies t o the inner whole works of firms in the computer industry. A major effort on these lines in being undertaken by one of the authors and his colleagues in Stanford Universitys Computer labor Project. reasonableness these changes so that they privy be tackle for copious ends be a central gainsay for the near decennary of research. The fast progress in calculative computers and communications systems contrasts starkly with the uncertainty clouding organizational design. Yet, new ways of organizing will be needful beforehand the potential of IT can be realized.Furthermore, because the new organizational paradigms involve numerous complementarities, the empirical methods which were important in the rise of the organizational forms of the past century, such as large hierarchies and mass markets, may be ill-sorted for making the contiguous transition. soul and implementing one perspective of a new organizational structure without regard to its interaction with other asp ects can leave the make the organization worsened off than if no modifications at all were made. Design, instead than evolution, is called for when evidential changes must be made along tenfold dimensions simultaneously. winning organizational design, in turn, requires that we apprehend the flow of information among worldly concern and their agents every bit as well as we understand the flow of electrons in chips and wires. Perhaps, then, the novelty in information processing capabilities not only calls for a change in business organization, but also a re-evaluation of the historic interval between data Systems and economics.REFERENCES1 Meyers, G. The perception of attention. In C. B. Thompson (Eds.), scientific counsel Cambridge Harvard University Press, 1914.2 Kanter, R. M. The sore managerial trim. Harvard melodic phrase Review, zero(prenominal)-Dec, 1989, pp. 85-92.3 Peters, T. well-to-do on Chaos, enchiridion for a anxiety Revolution. rude(a) York Knopf, 1988 .4 Milgrom, P. and Roberts, J. The frugals of forward-looking Manufacturing applied science, Strategy, and Organization. American stinting Review, Vol. 80, none 3, 1990.5 Jaikumar, R. Post-Industrial Manufacturing. Harvard line of merchandise Review, nary(prenominal)ember-December, 1986, pp. 69-76.6 Brynjolfsson, E. culture engine room and the new(a) managerial Work. functional story 3563-93. MIT, 1990.7 Galbraith, J. organizational Design. 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Dow Jones-Irwin.14 Amihud, Y. and Mendelson, H. Liquidity, unpredictability and central Automation. diary of Accounting, Auditing and Finance, Vol. 3, Fall, 1988, pp. 369-395.15 Malone, T. W., Yates, J. and Benjamin, R. I. electronic Markets and electronic Hierarchies. communication theory of the ACM, Vol. 30, No. 6, 1987, pp. 484-497.16 Baker, G. P. Incentive Contracts and mathematical process Measurement. journal of policy-making Economy, Vol. 100, No. 3, June, 1992.17 Brynjolfsson, E. An incomplete Contracts surmise of Inf ormation, Technology, and Organization. Management Science, forthcoming, 1993.